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UNIVERSITY    OF)  CALIFORNIA      AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

COLLEGE    OF    AGRICULTURE  ^ou^ons^^J^o^^a  D,«ECTOR 

BERKELEY  »•    c.    VAN   NORMAN,    VICE-DIRECTOR    AND    DEAN 


CIRCULAR  No.  Ill 

REVISED 
OCTOBER,  1917 


THE  USE  OF  LIME  AND 

ON  CALIFORNIA  SOILS  .™lv  OP  SJ"  / 

BY  CHAS.  B.  LIPMAN 


Much  confusion  exists  in  the  popular  mind  with  reference  to  the 
actual  nature 'of  lime  and  its  use.  The  following  brief  statements 
are  intended  to  clear  up  difficulties  which  exist  and  to  reply  to  fre- 
quently recurring  questions  on  the  important  subjects  of  lime  and 
its  use,  and  gypsum  and  its  use. 

THE    NATURE   AND   FUNCTIONS   OF   LIME 

The  term  "lime,"  as  we  may  employ  it  in  the  agricultural  sense, 
includes  the  following  materials :  Burnt  lime  or  quicklime  (oxide  of 
calcium),  hydrated  or  waterslaked  lime  (hydrate  of  calcium),  ground 
limestone  (carbonate  of  calcium).  In  addition  a  form  of  lime  known 
as  air-slaked  lime  is  available,  which  may  approach  in  chemical  com- 
position the  ground  limestone.  Air-slaked  lime  results  from  the 
action  of  carbonic  acid  gas  on  water-slaked  lime  or  from  that  of  water 
and  carbonic  acid  gas  on  burnt  lime  or  quicklime.  Either  burnt  lime, 
or  hydrated  or  water-slaked  lime  will  change  to  air-slaked  lime  if 
allowed  to  lie  in  the  open  air  for  a  long  enough  period  of  time. 
The  action  is  rather  slow  in  the  center  of  the  pile  of  lime,  however, 
and  thus  it  may  frequently  happen  that  so-called  air-slaked  lime  may 
consist  of  a  considerable  proportion  of  quicklime  or  of  water-slaked 
lime,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  found  to  be  not  as  fully  carbonated  as 
one  would  expect.  The  total  amount  of  air-slaked  lime  of  the  variety 
just  described,  which  is  available  on  the  market  is  very  smalL  .  A 
form  of  air-slaked  lime  is  available  on  our  market^,  however,  in  con- 
siderable quantities  today,  which  results  from  the  processes  of  sugar 
refining,  and  which  in  chemical  composition  is  very  much  more  like 


ground  limestone  than  the  ordinary  forms  of  air-slaked  lime  just 
discussed.  This  so-called  "sugar  house"  refuse  lime  will,  in  the  dry 
state,  contain  from  70  to  80  per  cent  of  calcium  carbonate  and  is 
usually  in  a  very  fine  state  of  division  and  for  that  reason  is  superior 
to  ground  limestone,  even  ^though  the  latter  may  contain  a  larger 
proportion  of  actual  calcium  carbonate. 

Even  in  the  agricultural  sense,  the  term  lime  does  not  include 
gypsum.  The  latter  is  an  entirely  different  substance  from  the  three 
named  above,  as  will  be  explained  later.  Speaking  with  the  correct- 
ness of  the  chemist,  the  term  "lime"  is  applied  only  to  burnt  lime 
(quicklime)  or  calcium  oxide.  Just  how  the  three  materials  dis- 
cussed agriculturally  under  the  name  lime  are  to  be  employed  and 
where  one  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  other,  if  at  all,  are  questions  which 
are  answered  below. 

Before  going  into  a  detailed  discussion  of  the  mission  or  function 
of  lime  in  soils,  it  is  well  to  state  clearly  the  relative  values  for  practice 
of  (1)  the  burnt,  caustic  or  quicklime;  (2)  the  hydrated  or  water- 
slaked  lime,  and  (3)  the  carbonate  or  the  air-slaked  lime.  These  lime 
materials  are  largely  valued  for  the  amount  of  calcium  oxide  which 
they  contain.  Quicklime  is  nearly  all  calcium  oxide.  Hydrated  or 
water-slaked  lime  contains  less  calcium  oxide  than  quicklime,  in  about 
the  following  proportion:  it  takes  2643  pounds  of  hydrated  lime  to 
carry  an  equivalent  quantity  of  calcium  oxide  to  that  carried  by  one 
ton  of  quicklime  when  both  materials  are  pure.  Nevertheless,  for 
practical  purposes,  they  are  not  to  be  considered  as  very  greatly  differ- 
ent, since  the  water-slaked  lime  contains  certain  advantages  like  that 
of  fineness  of  division,  which  the  quicklime  does  not  have,  and  since 
they  are  rarely  pure.  Thoroughly  air-slaked  lime,  like  the  sugar- 
house  refuse  lime  and  ground  limestone,  contains  only  a  little  more 
than  half  the  amount  of  calcium  oxide  that  the  quicklime  does  and 
therefore  two  tons  of  either  should  be  employed  if  it  is  to  be  used  in 
place  of  the  burnt  lime.  If  the  ground  limestone  is  not  very  pure, 
that  is  if  it  contains  less  than  98  per  cent  of  calcium  carbonate,  pro- 
portionately more,  dependent  upon  the  composition,  as  compared  to 
the  burnt  lime  should  be  used.  The  same  applies  to  the  sugar-house 
refuse  lime.  Just  as  the  water-slaked  lime  has  an  advantage  over  the 
burnt  lime,  owing  to  the  fineness  of  division  of  the  former,  so  the 
sugar-house  refuse  lime  possesses  an  advantage  over  the  ground  lime- 
stone for  the  same  reason.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  in  all 


of  these  cases,  that  the  total  amount  of  calcium  oxide  in  every  form 
of  lime  should  be  the  first  consideration  when  purchasing  any  of  these 
materials.  Other  rules  for  making  a  choice  depend  upon  conditions 
which  are  discussed  below.  Eelative  money  values  can  be  determined 
at  any  time  from  the  foregoing  explanation  of  relationship  between 
the  different  lime-  materials.  It  must  also  be  remembered  in  that 
connection,  however,  that  the  cost  of  handing  larger  quantities  and 
the  additional  freight  rates  involved  must  always  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration in  calculating  the  actual  and  relative  cost  of  the  different 
materials.  The  prices  for  lime  vary  in  this  state,  in  the  knowledge 
of  the  writer,  from  $2  per  ton  up  to  $15  per  ton,  and  there  seems 
to  have  been  no  uniformity  of  price  based  on  actual  lime  content  or 
on  fineness  of  division.  Local  circumstances  of  a  variety  of  kinds 
have  usually  set  the  prices.  Ground  limestone  and  sugar-house  refuse 
lime  have  been  selling  at  rates  varying  from  $3.50  to  $6.50  per  ton, 
and,  in  most  cases,  very  little  of  the  other  forms  of  lime  is  available 
on  the  market  for  agricultural  uses.  A  list  of  some  of  the  principal 
firms  which  engage  in  selling  lime  in  different  forms  may  be  obtained 
by  addressing  the  Division  of  Soil  Chemistry  and  Bacteriology. 

The  following  is  a  consideration  of  the  function  of  lime  materials 
in  soils : 

1.  Lime    materials    have    the    power    of    improving    the    crumb- 
structure  of  clay  and  making  it  more  pervious  to  water  and  air,  by 
making  a  large   number   of  soil   crumbs   from   large   sticky  masses. 
Therefore,  lime  makes  clays  and  clay  adobe  soils  looser,  tends  to 
prevent  packing,  baking,  and  cracking,  makes  plowing  and  cultivating 
easier,  and,  in  general,  makes  the  soil,  physically,  a  healthier  medium 
for  plant  growth. 

2.  Lime  materials  (as  above  described)   serve  as  a  source  of  the 
element  calcium  to  plants.      Calcium  is  one  of  the  ten  essential  chem- 
ical elements  in  plant  growth. 

3.  Lime  materials  tend  to  make  "sour"  soils  "sweet."      Speaking 
correctly,  they  tend  to  change  an  acid  soil  condition  to  a  less  acid  one. 
Acidity  of  soils  may  be  very  detrimental  to  the  growth   of  many 
agricultural  crops. 

4.  Lime  materials  are  necessary  for  useful  and  beneficial  bacteria 
and  other  microorganisms  of  the  soil.     It  furnishes  these  the  element 
calcium,  whicli  is  as  essential  to  them  as  to  the  higher  plants.      It 
promotes  a  slightly  alkaline  condition,  which  is  probably  ideal  for 


their  development.     By  its  physical  effect  lime  produces  good  air  and 
moisture  conditions  for  bacteria  as  above  described. 

5.  Lime  materials  promote  the  normal  decay  of  soil  organic  matter 
through  their  effects  on  the  agencies  of  decay  above  described.      The 
normal  decay  of  organic  matter   in   soil   prevents   accumulation   of 
poisonous  materials  in  soils  which  may  be  detrimental  to  plant  growth. 

6.  Lime  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  neutralize  the  toxic  effects 
of  sodium  carbonate  or  black  alkali. 

THE  NATURE  AND  FUNCTION  OF  GYPSUM 

Gypsum  is  the  sulfate  of  calcium  and  therefore  is  not  the  same  as 
"lime"  nor  the  same  as  any  of  the  three  agricultural  forms  of  the 
latter  above  described.  The  only  thing  which  gypsum  has  in  common 
with  the  three  lime  materials  named,  from  the  point  of  view  of  chem- 
ical composition,  is  that  it,  like  the  others,  contains  the  element 
calcium.  Let  us  study  its  functions  in  soils. 

1.  Gypsum  exerts  a  similar  physical  effect  to  that  of  lime  on  the 
clay  and  adobe  soils  (see  above). 

2.  Gypsum,  like  lime,  serves  as  a  source  of  the  element  calcium 
(see  above). 

3.  Gypsum,  like  lime,  stimulates  the  beneficial  soil  organisms  in 
the  nodules  on  roots  of  leguminous  plants  like  the  peas,  beans,  vetches, 
alfalfas,  and  clovers. 

4.  Gypsum  does  not  make  "sour"  soil  "sweet."      It  will  not 
change  an  acid  into  a  slightly  alkaline  soil  as  do  the  lime  materials. 
Gypsum  possesses  no  alkalinity,  and  therefore  will  not  be  of  assistance, 
or  act  as  a  corrective  to  "sourness"  or  acidity  in  soils. 

5.  Gypsum  will  neutralize  the  toxic  effects  of  sodium  carbonate  or 
"black  alkali." 

LIME  VERSUS   GYPSUM 

The  question  comes  to  us  frequently  as  to  whether  "lime  or 
gypsum"  will  correct  a  certain  difficulty  in  soils.  This  confusion 
of  two  distinct  types  of  substances  has  done  much  harm,  and  the 
reader  is  asked  to  read  carefully  the  statements  made  above  with 
respect  to  each  in  order  that  errors  may  be  obviated.  As  above  noted 
there  is  at  least  one  very  important  function  which  lime  performs  in 
the  soil  which  gypsum  cannot  perform.  If  soils  need  correction  for 
acidity,  the  lime  materials  will  do  but  not  the  gypsum.  Too  much 
emphasis  cannot  be  placed  on  this  distinction.  In  fact,  to  be  on  the 
safe  side  the  use  of  lime  is  advised  even  in  cases  in  which  people  with 


exact  information  might,  perhaps,  give  the  preference  to  gypsum. 
The  distinct  and  limited  uses  for  gypsum  are  below  described,  however, 
to  serve  as  a  guide. 

LIME   ON   HEAVY  SOILS 

No  determination  needs  to  be  made  to  inform  the  owner  of  heavy 
land  if  lime  is  necessary  to  improve  the  soil's  texture  as  above  de- 
scribed. The  decision  both  as  to  the  amount  to  apply  and  as  to  the 
feasibility  of  applying  it  must  be  made  on  the  basis  of  the  cost  of 
lime  and  the  degree  of  "running  together"  or  baking  and  cracking, 
which  is  characteristic  of  the  soil.  From  one  to  two  tons  of  the 
burnt  lime  or  of  the  hydrated  lime,  or  from  two  to  four  tons  of  the 
ground  limestone,  may  be  safely  applied  to  improve  the  working 
qualities  of  heavy  soils.  Application  may  be  made  by  means  of  one 
of  the  several  types  of  lime  spreading  machines  or  the  lime  may  be 
deposited  in  piles  and  spread  with  a  shovel.  It  should  be  well  plowed 
in  and  covered  up  at  a  time  when  there  is  sufficient  moisture  in  the 
soil  for  the  lime  to  act  well. 

The  burnt  lime  and  the  hydrated  lime  are  to  be  preferred  to  the 
carbonate  of  lime  for  making  heavy  soils  lighter  if  the  cost  will  allow. 
The  first  two  forms  act  more  vigorously  and  more  quickly.  Appli- 
cations of  lime  are  best  made  prior  to  fall  or  winter  plowing  or  one 
or  more  months  prior  to  planting.  This  must  particularly  be  borne 
in  mind  if  either  burnt  lime  or  hydrated  lime  are  employed. 


LIME  ON   "SOUR"  OR  ACID  SOILS 

If  "sour"  soils  are  also  heavy  clays  or  clay  adobes,  the  recom- 
mendations for  the  use  of  lime  above  made  for  heavy  soils  are  to  be 
followed.  If  sour  soils  are  loams,  silts  or  sands,  the  ground  limestone 
is  to  be  preferred  to  the  other  forms  of  lime  where  it  is  obtainable. 

To  test  your  soil  for  sourness  or  acidity  proceed  as  follows :  Mix 
some  of  the  surface  soil  to  be  tested  and  moisten  thoroughly.  Mold 
it  into  a  ball  of  wet  earth  about  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter. 
Break  the  ball  in  two  and  on  one  of  the  broken  surfaces  place  two 
strips  of  red  litmus  paper  previously  moistened  with  clean  boiled 
water.  (Litmus  paper,  both  red  and  blue,  may  be  obtained  in  drug 
stores.)  Do  not  touch  the  moistened  litmus  paper  with  the  fingers 
if  possible.  Set  the  broken  surfaces  of  earth  together  again  and 
press  tightly.  Perform  the  same  test  with  another  ball  of  earth,  but 


use  blue  instead  of  red  litmus  paper.  Allow  the  balls  of  earth  to 
lie  undisturbed  for  half  an  hour;  then  open,  and  if  the  red  litmus 
paper  has  turned  blue  no  lime  is  needed.  If  it  remains  red,  and  the 
blue  litmus  paper  turns  red,  lime  is  needed  and  should  be  applied  as 
above  directed.  If  neither  the  red  nor  the  blue  litmus  paper  should 
change  color  during  half  an  hour  or  more,  then  the  reaction  of  the  soil 
is  neutral  and  small  applications  of  ground  limestone,  not  to  exceed 
one  ton  per  acre,  will  be  sufficient. 

WHEN  AND  HOW  GYPSUM    MAY  BE   USED 

Gypsum  may  be  used  to  good  advantage  on  alfalfa  fields  to  stim- 
ulate the  growth  of  the  plants.  This  is  especially  to  be  remembered 
in  connection  with  alfalfa  fields  of  several  years'  standing  in  which 
"bald"  spots  or  bare  patches  are  found.  An  application  of  gypsum 
in  such  cases,  not  to  exceed  300  or  400  pounds  to  the  acre,  along  with 
fall  disking  will  give  striking  stimulation  to  the  plants  and  rejuvenate 
the  field.  The  reason  for  this  is  believed  to  be  that  gypsum  is  a 
stimulant  to  the  alfalfa  plant  itself  and  to  the  nitrogen-gathering 
bacteria  which  grow  in  the  nodules  on  its  roots. 

If  lime  is  very  expensive,  as  it  may  be  in  some  districts  of  this 
state,  gypsum,  if  much  cheaper,  may  also  be  used  as  indicated  above, 
to  lighten  heavy  soils.  Applications  varying  from  one-half  ton  to 
one  ton  per  acre  may  be  used  in  such  cases. 

Another  use  for  gypsum,  which  is  more  limited,  consists  in  apply- 
ing it  to  ' '  black  alkali ' '  land  to  neutralize  or  make  harmless  the  black 
alkali.  In  this  respect  gypsum  cannot  l>e  replaced  by  lime.  The 
amounts  to  be  used  in  such  cases  will  depend  on  the  amount  of  black 
alkali  present  in  the  soil.  This  must  be  determined  for  those  inter- 
ested by  the  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  which 
should  be  communicated  with  under  such  circumstances.  Address 
Division  of  Soil  Chemistry  and  Bacteriology,  Budd  Hall,  Berkeley, 
California. 


STATION   PUBLICATIONS   AVAILABLE   FOR   FREE   DISTRIBUTION 


REPORTS 

1897.      Resistant  Vines,   their  Selection,   Adaptation,   and  Grafting.      Appendix  to  Viticultural 
Report  for  1896. 

1902.  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for   1898-1901. 

1903.  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for   1901-03. 

1904.  Twenty-second  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for   1903—04. 

1914.  Report  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  the  Agricultural   Experiment   Station,    July, 

1913-June,    1914. 

1915.  Report  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  the  Agricultural   Experiment   Station,    Julv, 

1914-June,    1915. 

1916.  Report  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  the  Agricultural   Experiment   Station,   Julv, 

1915-June,    1916. 

1917.  Report  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  the   Agricultural   Experiment   Station,   July, 

1916_June,    1917. 


BULLETINS 


No. 
230.   Enological  Investigations. 

241.  Vine  Pruning  in  California,  Part  I. 

242.  Humus  in  California  Soils. 

246.  Vine  Pruning  in  California,  Part  II. 
248    The  Economic  Value  of  Pacific  Coast 
Kelps. 

249.  Stock-Poisoning  Plants  of  California. 

250.  The  Loquat. 

251.  Utilization  of  the  Nitrogen  and  Organic 

Matter   in    Septic    and    Imhoff   Tank 
Sludges. 

252.  Deterioration  of  Lumber. 

253.  Irrigation   and   Soil  Conditions  in  the 

Sierra  Nevada  Foothills,  California. 
255.   The   Citricola    Scale. 
257.  New  Dosage  Tables. 

261.  Melaxuma    of    the    Walnut,     "Juglans 

regia." 

262.  Citrus   Diseases   of   Florida   and   Cuba 

Compared  with  Those  of  California. 

263.  Size  Grade  for  Ripe  Olives. 

264.  The  Calibration  of  the  Leakage  Meter. 

265.  Cotton  Rot  of  Lemons  in  California. 

266.  A  Spotting  of  Citrus  Fruits  Due  to  the 

Action  of  Oil  Liberated  from  the  Rind. 

267.  Experiments  with  Stocks  for  Citrus. 

268.  Growing  and  Grafting  Olive  Seedlings. 


No. 

270.  A  Comparison  of  Annual  Cropping,  Bi- 

ennial Cropping,  and  Green  Manures 
on  the  Yield  of  Wheat. 

271.  Feeding  Dairy  Calves  in  California. 

272.  Commercial  Fertilizers. 

273.  Preliminary  Report  on  Kearney  Vine- 

yard Experimental  Drain. 

274.  The  Common  Honey  Bee  as  an  Agent 

in   Prune   Pollination. 

275.  The  Cultivation  of  Belladonna  in  Cali- 

fornia. 

276.  The  Pomegranate. 

277.  Sudan  Grass. 

278.  Grain  Sorghums. 

279.  Irrigation  of  Rice  in   California. 

280.  Irrigation  of  Alfalfa  in  the  Sacramento 

Valley. 

281.  Control  of  the  Pocket  Gophers  in  Cali- 

fornia. 

282.  Trials  with  California  Silage  Crops  for 

Dairy  Cows. 

283.  The-  Olive  Insects  of  California. 

284.  Irrigation  of  Alfalfa  in  Imperial  Valley. 

285.  The  Milch  Goat  in  California. 

286.  Commercial  Fertilizers. 

287.  Vinegar  from   Waste  Fruits. 


No. 


113.  Correspondence  Courses  in  Agriculture. 

114.  Increasing  the  Dutv  of  Water. 

115.  Grafting  Vinifera  Vineyards. 

121.   Some    Things    the    Prospective    Settler 

Should  Know. 
124.  Alfalfa   Silage  for  Fattening  Steers. 

126.  Spraying  for  the  Grape  Leaf  Hopper. 

127.  House  Fumigation. 

128.  Insecticide  Formulas. 

129.  The  Control  of  Citrus  Insects. 

131.   Spraying  for  Control  of  Walnut  Aphis. 

133.  County  Farm  Adviser. 

134.  Control  of  Raisin   Insects. 

135.  Official  Tests  of  Dairy  Cows. 

136.  Melilotus  Indica. 

137.  Wood  Decay  in  Orchard  Trees. 

138.  The  Silo  in  California  Agriculture. 

139.  The   Generation    of  Hvdrocyanic    Acid 

Gas  in  Fumigation  by  Portable  Ma- 
chines. 

140.  The  Practical  Application  of  Improved 

Methods  of  Fermentation  in  Califor- 
nia Wineries  during  1913  and  1914. 

141.  Standard   Insecticides   and  Fungicides 

versus  Secret  Preparations. 

142.  Practical  and  Inexpensive  Poultry  Ap- 

pliances. 

143.  Control   of    Grasshoppers    in    Imperial 

Valley. 

144.  Oidium  or  Powderv  Mildew  of  the  Vine. 

145.  Suggestions  to  Poultrymen  concerning 

Chicken  Pox. 

147.  Tomato   Growing  in   California. 

148.  "Lungworms." 

150.  Round  Worms  in   Poultrv. 

151.  Feeding  and  Management  of  Hogs. 


CIRCULARS 
No. 
152. 


Some  Observations  on  the  Bulk  Hand- 
ling of  Grain  in  California. 

153.  Announcement  of  the  California   State 

Dairy  Cow  Competition,   1916-18. 

154.  Irrigation    Practice  in   Growing   Small 

Fruits  in  California. 

155.  Bovine  Tuberculosis. 

156.  How  to   Operate  an   Incubator. 

157.  Control  of  the  Pear  Scab. 

158.  Home  and  Farm  Canning. 

160.  Lettuce    Growing   in    California. 

161.  Potatoes  in   California. 

162.  White    Diarrhoea    and    Coccidiosis    of 

Chicks. 

164.  Small  Fruit  Culture  in  California. 

165.  Fundamentals    of    Sugar    Beet    under 

California  Conditions. 

166.  The  County  Farm  Bureau. 

167.  Feeding  Stuffs  of  Minor  Importance. 

168.  Spraying  for  the  Control  of  Wild  Morn 

ing- Glory  within  the  Fog  Belt. 

169.  1918  Grain  Crop. 

170.  Fertilizing  California  Soils  for  the  1918 

Crop. 

171.  The  Fertilization  of  Citrus. 

172.  Wheat  Culture. 

173.  The    Construction    of    the    Wood-Hoop 

Silo. 

174.  Farm  Drainage  Methods. 

175.  Progress  Report  on  the  Marketing  and 

Distribution    of    Milk. 

176.  Hog      Cholera      Prevention      and      the 

Serum    Treatmpnt. 

177.  Grain    Sorghum    Seed. 

178.  The   Packing  of   Apples   in    California. 


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